![]() ![]() The analysis suggests that the pads can conform closely enough to the substrate to generate a substantial amount of van der Waals forces. We conducted a sensitivity analysis of the amount of generated van der Waals forces as a function of the distance between toe and substrate as well as the interaction strength between the two. The high conformability of the toe pad may allow the generation of van der Waals forces – forces of attraction that arise when molecules are in close proximity – between the pad and the substrate, contributing to the attachment of tree frogs. This presumably enables the pad to closely conform to the rough substrates found in nature. In fact, the pad has an effective stiffness in the order of 25 kPa, which is softer than most other biological materials. This pattern presumably reduces the effective stiffness of the pad. The top of each cell is covered by ‘nanopillars’, which again are separated by channels, effectively forming a hierarchical micro- to nanoscopic pattern on the ventral pad epidermis. Individual surface cells of the pad skin form polygonal pillars that are separated by a network of channels. The toe pads show a characteristic surface pattern on their ventral side. (2018): Tree frog attachment: mechanisms, challenges, and perspectives.
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